Philosophy, its Subject, and its Role in Human and Societal Life

The Primary Functions of Philosophy

Aristotle once remarked, “All sciences are more necessary than philosophy, yet none is more sublime.” What, then, are the functions of philosophy in society that warrant such a paradoxical description?

The primary functions of philosophy, which define its role in the life of society and the individual, include: the worldview-regulatory function, the methodological function, the cognitive function, the humanistic function, the general cultural function, intellectual therapy (or psychotherapeutic function), and the socio-critical function.

Worldview-Regulatory Function. In his History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell noted that all precise knowledge belongs to science, while all dogmas belong to theology. However, between science and theology lies a "no man's land," where attempts are made to answer a series of questions, including: Is the world divided into spirit and matter? What is the nature of humanity? Is there a perfect way of life, and how can it be attained? These questions, Russell asserted, cannot be answered in scientific laboratories. It is philosophy’s task to address them. By posing such questions, philosophy offers a worldview, influencing how individuals orient themselves in the world and form their life stance concerning the social realm.

The formation of a person’s worldview as a systematic part of their consciousness occurs under the influence of specific, diverse, and often chaotic life circumstances. People are not content with knowing isolated fragments of reality; they strive to connect everything into a cohesive whole, seeking principles and ideals by which they can form their beliefs. Why is this important to them? The primary reason lies in the human desire for harmony within their inner world.

It should not be assumed that philosophy offers a ready-made worldview. In reality, a choice is required, for within philosophy itself exists a spectrum of positions—materialist, idealist, rationalist, and irrationalist—each offering its vision of the world, a certain picture of the whole, including humanity. The worldview-regulatory function, which entails shaping people’s life orientations and grounding their ideals, can be considered fundamental.

Methodological Function. Closely tied to the worldview-regulatory function is philosophy's methodological function. Methodology refers to the study of methods of knowledge acquisition. It encompasses the tools and techniques employed in science, as well as the broader principles governing both theoretical and practical activity. Each science has its method, but as science evolves, it requires philosophical reflection concerning the nature and justification of its principles. Philosophy plays a crucial role in the formation of scientific theories, seen in how scientists themselves question the foundations of their knowledge. Great scientists, who were also philosophers in their respective fields, such as Einstein, Infeld, and Born, emphasized the significance of general methodology and theory in science.

General Cultural Function. The eminent physicist Max Laue, a Nobel laureate, once remarked, “It seems to me that all sciences should gather around philosophy as their common center, and their service to it is their own goal. Only in this way can the unity of scientific culture be preserved against the relentless progression of scientific specialization.” This statement highlights philosophy's general cultural function, which it has fulfilled since its inception. This function lies in philosophy’s capacity to synthesize human experience and integrate it into cultural universals—categories and values.

Even though over the course of history, as specific sciences began to branch off from philosophy, its scope narrowed and it lost its status as the "science of sciences," its general cultural role has only grown. The Roman philosopher Cicero famously stated, “The cultivation of the soul is philosophy.” These words, spoken in antiquity, are perhaps even more relevant today. It is no exaggeration to claim that philosophy is now a vital element of humanity's spiritual culture, serving as the creator of new ideas, worldviews, and societal ideals.

Intellectual Therapy or Psychotherapeutic Function. This function comes to the forefront in times of social instability. It is no coincidence that Epicurus and Seneca—philosophers of the late ancient period—were among the first to emphasize its importance. Epicurus remarked, “The words of a philosopher that do not heal any human suffering are empty. Just as medicine is of no benefit if it does not cure bodily ailments, so too is philosophy if it does not alleviate the soul's afflictions.” Seneca similarly stressed, “In philosophy’s hands is royal power; it commands your time, and you do not allocate an hour or two to it. Philosophy is not something auxiliary, it is the main thing, it rules, and it gives orders.” During periods of societal crisis, figures like Viktor Frankl, a philosopher-psychiatrist, developed logotherapy, aimed at overcoming suffering in the face of life's loss of meaning.

Humanistic Function. Philosophy possesses a profound humanistic potential, affirming humanity as the highest value. It plays a vital role in fostering humanitarian ideals, adapting individuals to life, and asserting the positive meaning and purpose of existence.

Theoretical-Cognitive Function. Another crucial function of philosophy is its ability to develop conceptual tools that penetrate the essence of phenomena and uncover objective, lawful connections between them. Regardless of its orientation, philosophy is always a form of cognition, a search for truth, an attempt to delve into the world of things, ideas, and phenomena. Thus, it cultivates theoretical thinking and expands human cognitive capabilities, always striving to answer the classic questions posed by Immanuel Kant: What can I know? What should I do? What may I hope for? What is man?

The study of philosophy also helps cultivate critical thinking skills. In the complex process of philosophical inquiry, doubt plays a vital role. Skepticism—embodied by ancient thinkers like Pyrrho, Arcesilaus, and Sextus Empiricus—introduced doubt as a fundamental principle of thought. Since antiquity, the principle "question everything" has demonstrated the importance of critically reassessing outdated knowledge and values.

Having examined the primary functions of philosophy, we return to Aristotle's characterization of philosophy as both the most useless and most sublime of sciences. Indeed, it may be useless in the narrow, utilitarian sense, incapable of teaching us to smelt metals, build airplanes, or grow crops. Yet, on the other hand, philosophy is truly sublime. What could be more sublime than guiding individuals toward spiritual values, helping them comprehend the meaning of life, their place in the world, and their relationships with others? This sublime aspect is realized most prominently in the humanistic and general cultural functions of philosophy, which stand as the spiritual quintessence of its era.