Ancient Philosophy and its Cosmocentric Orientation

Cosmogonic and Natural Philosophical Ideas of the Pre-Socratics

The philosophy of the pre-Socratics encompasses:

• Ionian philosophy—represented by the Milesian school and Heraclitus;
• Italian philosophy—embodied by the Pythagoreans, Eleatics, and Empedocles;
• The philosophy of ancient Greek atomists—Leucippus and Democritus.

Ionian Philosophy: The founder of the Milesian school, Thales (circa 625-547 BCE), was the first mathematician and physicist. He gained his foundational knowledge in Babylonia, Egypt, and Phoenicia. Thales regarded water as the fundamental principle underlying all existence, considering it a vital essence. According to him, everything possesses a soul, akin to a magnet attracting iron. He is credited with predicting a solar eclipse. Thales’ pupil, Anaximander (circa 610-540 BCE), posited the apeiron—the indefinite, the boundless—as the origin and essence of all things. The concept of the apeiron marks an evolution in thought, liberating it from metaphorical representations toward a more abstract understanding. Anaximenes (circa 588-525 BCE), a student and successor of Anaximander, identified air as the primary substance, deeming it the most undifferentiated and permeable. Thus, he reverted to concrete, sensory representations of the first principle, failing to maintain the abstract thinking of his mentor. The representatives of the Milesian school took decisive steps towards demythologizing the ancient worldview.

Heraclitus of Ephesus (circa 544-483 BCE) identified fire as the foundation of the cosmos and was the first in ancient philosophy to introduce and substantiate the concept of the world's development, attributing its eternal renewal, formation, and evolution to the struggle of opposing forces. He explained cosmic processes through the rhythmic pulsation of the ever-living fire, with its steady igniting and extinguishing. The idea of the struggle of opposites was intertwined with his thought on the permanence of change in the world, symbolized by the image of a flowing river. Heraclitus’ dialectics were not yet articulated in formal concepts; they were constructed on vivid, concrete, sensory images and meanings. His famous assertions became proverbial: "Everything flows; everything changes," and "You cannot step into the same river twice."

Italian Philosophy: From Ionia, the center of spiritual life in the Greek world shifted to the distant West—Great Greece, a term denoting the colonies established along the coasts of Southern Italy and Sicily: Neapolis, Elea, Croton, and Syracuse. The founder of the Pythagorean school was Pythagoras (circa 580-500 BCE)—a mathematician, philosopher, and moral-religious thinker who established his community in Southern Italy (Croton). The Pythagoreans proposed that quantitative relationships constituted the essence of the world; the foundation of all being is number, with numerical relationships forming the very essence of nature. Thus, the Pythagorean doctrine regarding the first principle was more abstract than that of the Milesians or Heraclitus. They made a significant advancement toward liberating thought from metaphorical representations. Central to Pythagorean philosophical inquiries were questions of the right way of life. The ideal of Pythagorean brotherhood was the principle of asceticism; within this community, a special hierarchy of values was established: foremost were the beautiful and the morally upright (knowledge and learning), followed by the advantageous and the useful, and lastly, the pleasant. Above all, the contemplative way of life of the sage was esteemed. The foundation of Pythagorean ethics lay in the moderation of passions, the cult of friendship and community, and the veneration of elders.

The chief representatives of the Eleatic school were Parmenides (circa 540-470 BCE) and Zeno (circa 480-430 BCE). Parmenides was the first to develop the philosophical concept of "being." He also raised the question of how one can conceive of being. At the heart of Parmenides’ inquiry were the problems concerning the relationship between being and non-being, as well as being and thought. Regarding the relationship between being and non-being, Parmenides asserted: being is, while non-being is not. He was the first to employ proofs to support his thesis. What exists can be expressed in thought; that which does not exist cannot be articulated in thought. Non-being is inexpressible, unknowable, and inaccessible to thought; thus, it is indeed non-being. According to Parmenides, "being and thought are one and the same." In contrast to Heraclitus' views, he advanced the idea of the unchanging and immobile nature of being. Being is what always is; its primary characteristics are that it is one and eternal. In his paradoxes—such as the dichotomy, Achilles and the tortoise, the arrow, and the stadium—Zeno sought to demonstrate the impossibility of motion.

Ancient Greek Atomists: The ancient Greek atomists included Leucippus (circa 500-440 BCE) and Democritus (circa 460-370 BCE). Democritus is regarded as the founder of the materialist school in philosophy. The foundational tenets of his doctrine are that the material world consists of atoms—indivisible particles of all that exists—and the void; all things, including the soul, are merely temporary combinations of atoms; atoms are in eternal motion within infinite space, forming an infinite multitude of worlds; everything in the universe occurs according to necessity, and chance is impossible. Based on the concept of atoms, a theory of knowledge is developed: thin films (images) detach from objects and affect the senses, but sensory perception only yields "dark" knowledge. "Bright" knowledge captures the essence of things, which can be obtained through reason; reason itself establishes the existence of unseen atoms and the void, meaning atoms are inaccessible to sensory cognition, understood only through intellect.

Democritus developed the concept of eudaimonistic ethics, which posits that the sole or highest human good is happiness. It is natural for individuals to strive for happiness—a state of tranquility, peace, and joy. According to Democritus, happiness is accessible only to the virtuous person. The condition for happiness is the cultivation of virtues such as wisdom and moderation. Only through wisdom, which allows for good thinking, speaking, and acting, can one free oneself from all that is contingent, transient, and vain. The pursuit of vain and illusory goods—wealth, fame, honors, and power—strips a person of true peace, rendering them greedy, fearful, envious, and in a constant state of anxiety over themselves and their possessions, losing the sense of moderation. "It is not physical strength or money that makes people happy, but righteousness and comprehensive wisdom." Democritus' moral ideal is the sage, who disregards the vanity of life and embodies moderation, requiring little to sustain a healthy state of body and spirit.

Thus, Democritus' moral stance is characterized, on the one hand, by rationalism—wisdom is viewed as the highest virtue, and reason serves as the criterion of moral behavior; on the other hand, by utilitarianism—good is what is beneficial, while evil is what is harmful. The foundations of individualistic ethics laid by Democritus were further developed by the sophists, with hedonistic and apolitical motives advanced by Epicurus. Democritus' ideas played a pivotal role in the subsequent evolution of philosophy, ethics, and natural science.