German Classical Philosophy

Anthropological Materialism of L. Feuerbach

The philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872) concludes the German classical philosophy. Although Feuerbach's philosophy fundamentally opposes that of his predecessors, it shares with them a central focus on humanity; like them, Feuerbach seeks to uncover the existential foundations and guiding principles of human activity in new historical conditions.

In contrast to his predecessors, Feuerbach is a materialist. He asserts that it is far simpler to conceive the emergence of spirit from matter than the reverse. Yet his materialism is distinctive; Feuerbach develops anthropological materialism. He posits that the central concern of the new philosophy must be humanity, not merely as a rational being but as a natural entity. Humanity is the highest manifestation of nature, where the unity of being and thought is revealed. Therefore, anthropology should emerge as a comprehensive science; it is here that the roots of both theology and philosophy must be sought. The essence of humanity constitutes the unity of reason, will, and heart. Reason and spirit exist only alongside the body, in conjunction with sensation and the human condition. Spiritual activity differs from other forms of activity solely in its connection to another organ—the head.

According to Feuerbach, knowledge must focus on nature, and the primary instrument of cognition is sensation. He sharply distinguishes himself from Descartes' rationalism, with its assertion, "I think, therefore I am." In this case, he argues, one cannot transition to other realities. He aligns himself with sensualism, maintaining that thought is grounded in the material of the senses.

Feuerbach holds a decidedly negative view of Hegel's philosophy, despite having been a fervent supporter and admirer during his student years. He contends that Hegel's philosophy represents a refined religion. "Whoever does not reject Hegelian philosophy," he writes, "does not reject theology either." Hegel's doctrine, that nature and reality are the alienation of the idea, is merely a rational expression of the theological assertion that nature is created by God—that the material is brought forth by the immaterial, by an abstract being. Thus, the roots of Hegelian idealism, like any form of idealism, are to be found in religion. Consequently, Feuerbach directs the thrust of his philosophical critique against religion, perceiving it as the root cause of distorted consciousness, alienation, and social injustice. This concern is central to his major work, "The Essence of Christianity," published in 1841.

Feuerbach argues that the existence of religion stems from imagination, feelings of dependence, a sense of human finitude, ignorance, and fear. It is not God who created humanity, but humanity that created God. "The infinite or divine essence is the spiritual essence of humanity, which, however, becomes separated from humanity and is presented as an independent being." God embodies a product of the mind; he is objectified reason that has transcended its subjective limits to affirm itself as an absolute essence. However, in creating God and objectifying in him their ideal essence and content—transforming him into a superhuman essence—humanity converts itself into his object, his creation, submitting to him. God thus becomes an alien essence that dominates over humanity. Therefore, Christianity must be rejected, as it poses obstacles to human development and "political freedom, this urgent need of contemporary humanity."

Nevertheless, Feuerbach's critique of Christianity does not imply that he opposes religion altogether. He asserts that historical periods are distinguished from one another only by changes in religion. Hence, another religion, founded on love for humanity, must replace Christianity. Religion arises not so much from reason as from the heart, with love at its core. Indeed, in Feuerbach's philosophy, love occupies a special place. Love not only forms the basis of religion but also serves as the essential characteristic of being. "To be nothing and to love nothing is the same," writes Feuerbach. Nature possesses being precisely because it serves as an object of existence for humanity, an object of its love. Humanity cannot help but love; it embodies as much being as it does love. Thus, humanity creates God as the object of its love. God embodies love, yet this love is not an active love. Christianity has exhausted and outlived itself. Humanity needs a new religion. Instead of the abstract, non-existent entity that is God, humanity must be placed at the forefront. It is essential to love not an abstract, non-existent humanity, as God is, but the real human being. Humanity realizes itself through another human being, for it is only through the other that one can comprehend one’s own essence and objectives; the other must be both the object and embodiment of that love. This is the essence of a new religion, which, in truth, is not a religion at all. "The negation of that light," Feuerbach writes, "entails the affirmation of it; the abolition of a better life in heaven contains the demand: we must become better on earth; it transforms a better future from an object of empty, inactive faith into an object of duty, into an object of human initiative."