Ancient Philosophy

Historical Preconditions and Sources of Ancient Philosophy

The theme of "Ancient Philosophy" occupies a special place within the study of philosophy. Antiquity—more specifically, ancient Greek philosophy and culture as a whole (which encompasses both ancient Greek and Roman periods)—is the cradle of European philosophy and culture, which has long transcended the boundaries of Europe. The 20th-century German philosopher Karl Jaspers characterizes the emergence of philosophy (which, historically, arose simultaneously with ancient Greek philosophy in other cultural centers such as India and China) as the axial age of world history, for it is during this period that the archetype of humanity, as we know it today, was formed.

Historical Preconditions and Sources of Ancient Philosophy

What are the causes that gave rise to philosophy and thus transformed human understanding of the world, their perspective on existence, and their own selves? In detail and specificity, this problem remains a mystery, likely to endure as such, due to a lack of sources. Nevertheless, retrospectively, and drawing on the methodologies developed by philosophy itself, particularly its historical branch, we can today discuss certain preconditions for the emergence of a new worldview. One significant methodological tenet asserts that profound—especially radical—changes in humanity's comprehension of the world and of itself are inextricably linked to fundamental alterations in all societal relations and the entirety of human life.

Ancient philosophy arose at the juncture of two epochs in the development of ancient Greek society: the primitive communal and the slave-owning. Throughout its evolution, ancient philosophy remained significantly influenced by the spiritual culture of the primitive communal system; however, at its core, it is a product of the slave-owning society and constitutes the essence of its spiritual culture. The processes of disintegration of primitive communal relations and the transition from a patriarchal system of slavery to a developed slave economy, occurring in Greece during the 8th to 5th centuries BCE, generated the necessity for a new form of understanding, revealing the inadequacies of a mythological worldview and prompting reflection on the very myth itself, thus compelling a departure from it.

The primitive communal system, lacking an individualistic perspective in social class distribution, did not conceive of individuality in the modern European sense. The tribe represented the sole form of human cohabitation and thus the only conceivable principle for interpreting the world. An individual did not conceive of themselves outside the tribe, nor did the tribe exist apart from nature. Tribal and familial relations, as understood by the ancient Greeks, were projected onto their comprehension of the universe, perceived as a unified cosmos. The mythology, more developed among the Greeks than among other peoples, serves as a form of consciousness that reflects tribal and familial relations, extending these understandings to encompass the entire world. In the myth, the universe is depicted as an indivisible unity, where the tribe "grows" from nature and humanity emerges from the tribe. Moreover, even the gods are seen as products of nature. Myth does not recognize a distinction between deity and nature, or between deity and humanity, or between nature and humanity. Differences exist, yet they pertain to degrees rather than essence. All entities operate under shared principles, and the world itself—an indivisible cosmos—is both corporeal and ensouled, akin to humanity, with gods mirroring human behavior, distinguished only by the intensity of feelings, desires, and passions. In this worldview, everything is rational and purposeful, reflecting the innate rationality and purposefulness of the tribe—an inherent natural quality requiring no justification or explanation. Thus, myth presents a picture of its creators and heroes, with a worldview that does not inquire "why," for such understanding is self-evident, much like the naturalness of tribal relations.

Before the astonished eyes of the Greeks, what seemed to be enduring tribal relations were disintegrating, leading to a collapse of their familiar and comprehensible world. Everything around them transitioned from the eternal and immutable to the transient and uncertain. The myth, which had explained and affirmed this eternal stability, could provide no answers, offering no support to those whose foundation was shifting beneath them. Herein arises a pressing societal need for comprehension of these processes, for an explanation of the unfolding events. In this context, progressive thinkers arrive at the understanding that to explain what is occurring, it is insufficient to merely invent a new myth; one must transcend the myth, to overcome it. The myth, as a form of understanding, had exhausted itself, just as the tribal community that birthed it had.

Yet, the existence of a societal demand for a new form of understanding does not imply that this need will be automatically satisfied. For this, the necessary preconditions must mature within the spiritual domain itself. Among these prerequisites for Greek philosophy were, on one hand, the myths and religious beliefs, and on the other, the accumulated knowledge from both the Greeks themselves and their neighbors.

It has been emphasized that Greek mythology represents one of the most sophisticated mythological systems and that ancient philosophy is inextricably linked to it. Furthermore, ancient philosophy is also closely intertwined with religion. Indeed, distinguishing between myth and religion among the ancient Greeks can be challenging, although they are not synonymous. Myth is considerably "broader" than religion in its content; the scope of events and phenomena it encompasses far exceeds the confines of religion. Yet, religion is the nucleus of myth; it serves as the principle through which the world is understood within myth. Belief in spiritual beings that exist beyond this world and govern it constitutes not only a primary characteristic but also an integral essence of the mythological approach to the cosmos.

The influence of myth and religion on ancient philosophy throughout its existence, in both the Greek and Roman periods, is undeniable. Myth and religion were the intellectual materials from which philosophy emerged. Ancient philosophers frequently turned to Hesiod and Homer—ancient Greek poets whose works systematically organized myths and underwent a defined rational processing, though their overall thought remained within mythological confines. In myth and religion, ancient Greek philosophers—especially the early ones—often drew the problems that became the subjects of their analysis, engaging with them in debate, frequently critiquing and ridiculing mythological and religious concepts. Nonetheless, ancient philosophy never entirely severed the umbilical cord that connected it to myth and religion.

However, myth and religion represent only one pillar upon which philosophy rests at its inception. The other pillar consists of the knowledge accumulated by various ancient Greek tribes and their neighboring peoples, primarily Babylon and Egypt. Many researchers note that these latter cultures achieved more significant advancements in mathematical and astronomical knowledge than the Greeks themselves. Yet, we undoubtedly owe the emergence of science as a distinct mode of understanding the world, along with a unique system of knowledge providing insights into it, to the Greeks.