Ancient Philosophy

The Doctrine of Society

Antique philosophy approaches the problem of the relationship between the individual and society from the perspective of a cosmos-centered principle of self-sufficiency and perfection. In the interconnection of the human being with society and the state (for Greek philosophers, society and state are synonymous), Greek thought prioritizes the state. This view is shared by the vast majority of Greek philosophers, with the exception of the Epicureans. The reasoning behind this is straightforward. According to Plato, no individual can fulfill themselves entirely; they have many needs, and thus people come together to support and assist one another in meeting those needs. Aristotle essentially endorses this view, asserting that the state is the highest form of community, organized for the sake of some good, making the state a community striving for the highest of all goods. In Aristotle's view, the individual is not self-sufficient; they are merely a part and become truly human only within the state. "The state is, by nature, primary compared to the family and each one of us," Aristotle writes, "for the whole must precede the part." During the ancient Greek period, there even existed the institution of ostracism, through which even respected citizens could be expelled from the state if, in the opinion of the majority, their activities threatened the state's peace or undermined its foundations.

Plato and Aristotle form two methodological approaches to the study of society and the state. Plato analyzes the state from the standpoint of how well it aligns with an ideal model. All existing states, in Plato's view, are imperfect. He ranks states according to their degree of imperfection based on the form of government: timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. Timocracy is the rule of the ambitious; oligarchy is the rule of a few wealthy; democracy is the rule of the majority, based on caprice; and tyranny is the rule of one over all. Each subsequent form is an extreme degeneration of the previous one. Plato identifies two main causes of the distortion of the state: the lack of division of labor and the division of society into rich and poor, resulting in "two hostile states within them; one of the poor, the other of the rich."

In contrast to the distorted forms of the state, the ideal state is characterized by the fact that its highest principle of organization is justice. According to Plato, state justice consists in each citizen performing their own role. In such a state, all citizens are divided into three classes: rulers, guardians, and those engaged in producing goods that satisfy the state's needs for food, shelter, clothing, and so forth. The rulers are those who possess wisdom, capable of governing well. These individuals are the true philosophers. "As long as philosophers are not rulers in states," writes Plato, "or the so-called rulers and lords of today do not become noble and profound philosophers, merging the two—state power and philosophy—states will never rid themselves of evil."

Guardians are those endowed with courage. Their task is to protect the state from external enemies and to maintain internal peace, serving as assistants to the rulers and as conduits for their views. The duty of the third class is to meet the numerous needs of the state, and within this class, individuals are organized according to their professions.

Equality in the ideal state is ensured by the fact that each person performs their own duty, occupying the position they deserve. But what determines each individual's place in the social hierarchy? According to Plato, this is conditioned by the principles of the human soul. Each person's soul consists of three parts: rational, spirited, and appetitive. Depending on which part predominates, a person belongs to one class or another. If the rational part prevails, they belong to the rulers; if the spirited part, to the guardians; and if the appetitive part, to the producers. Rulers should determine this in childhood and provide appropriate education based on the qualities of the soul. To prevent citizens from developing private interests, which lead to moral decay and constitute the principal evil for the state, guardians in the ideal state must possess neither property nor families, and the upbringing of children should be communal. Then, in Plato’s view, the joys and sufferings of each citizen will be perceived by all as their own. In such a state, the populace will call the rulers saviors and helpers, while the rulers will refer to the people as providers and nurturers. Plato is considered the first creator of utopia, with some regarding him as a precursor to communist ideas.

Aristotle approaches the analysis of the state differently. His principal work, "Politics," dedicated to this issue, is based on a systematic analysis of 158 constitutions of Greek city-states and a critique of existing political theories, primarily Plato’s theory of the state. This does not imply that Plato was a dreamer or utopian while Aristotle was a scientific researcher devoid of normative-axiological methods. Plato’s works contain many reflections grounded in a deep understanding of the political life of his time, while Aristotle is characterized by a normative-axiological approach. Yet, as V. F. Asmus aptly noted, "the distinctiveness of 'Politics' lies in the fact that its realistic, historical elements clearly prevail over the utopian."

Aristotle considers property one of the most crucial factors of social life. Wealth, in Aristotle's view, "is the sum of economic and political instruments." Moreover, property is not only a social-forming factor but also a characteristic of a self-sufficient individual. "It is difficult to express in words," Aristotle writes, "the joy in the realization that something belongs to you, for the innate feeling of self-love is not accidental, but rooted in our very nature."

However, Aristotle opposes excessive wealth. He advocates for moderate property, sufficient for the self-sufficient existence of a citizen. States dominated by oligarchy or, conversely, poverty cannot maintain stability. "Only where the middle class predominates, either over both extremes or over one of them, can the government hope for stability," he asserts.

The highest aim of the state is the common good. Based on this premise, Aristotle divides all forms of government into correct and incorrect. The correct forms include monarchy, aristocracy, and polity, as they govern for the benefit of the state. The incorrect forms—tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy—pursue private interests. The best form of government is polity, wherein power resides in the middle class.

The interconnection of ethical issues with political and other social problems was of great significance for the development of all social sciences. Both Plato and Aristotle, and indeed all ancient philosophy, insisted on an inseparable bond between politics, as the art of governing the state, and ethics, which should be guided by principles of goodness, benefit, and justice.