Philosophy of The Middle Ages and The Renaissance

The Philosophy of the Middle Ages as a Synthesis of Christianity and Ancient Philosophy

Ancient philosophy emerged from the soil of a slave-owning society and served as the foundation of its worldview. In contrast, the philosophy of the Middle Ages belongs to the era of feudalism (5th to 14th centuries). However, the assertion regarding the boundaries of medieval philosophy should not be interpreted literally for two reasons. Firstly, medieval philosophy arises within the framework of ancient society, and secondly, it descends from the historical stage much earlier than feudalism as a socio-economic and political system.

The Philosophy of the Middle Ages as a Synthesis of Christianity and Ancient Philosophy

Essentially, the philosophy of the Middle Ages is a religious philosophy. Its religious character manifests primarily in its regard for the highest truths, which it considers to be the tenets of sacred teaching, fully recognizing the Christian doctrine of a singular, personal God, the idea of creation ex nihilo, and other religious dogmas. All philosophical discourse revolves around religious issues. Indeed, medieval philosophy does not seek to uncover truth; rather, truth is given to us, found within the Bible and the teachings of the Church Fathers. The task of philosophy lies in clarifying these truths of religion and providing rational grounds for their justification. This explains the special place of medieval philosophy within the spiritual life of society. While ancient philosophy influences the spiritual fabric of society and serves as the basis for its worldview—at least for the educated elite—during the Middle Ages, it is religion that fulfills this function. Theology and philosophy were, in fact, the only forms of intellectual activity; true sciences, in the modern sense, did not exist. Yet philosophy played a subordinate role, with religion holding the dominant position. This supremacy was evident not only in the spiritual realm but also in social life as a whole. Religion, through the Church and monasteries, was a significant factor in economic life, actively participating in political matters. Essentially, the entire political landscape of the Middle Ages was reduced in Europe to the struggle between royal authority and the claims of the Vatican for political dominance.

Nevertheless, religion is merely one source of medieval philosophy. Another source is ancient philosophy itself. Religion cannot alone give rise to philosophy due to their differing modes of understanding the world. Religion proclaims its truths, while philosophy seeks to demonstrate its propositions, constructing a chain of reasoning and arguments to validate their truth, even when these propositions are derived from religious sources. For this purpose, it must utilize its intellectual material: concepts, categories, and methods of proof. The medieval philosophers could draw this material solely from ancient philosophy.

Christianity entered the Roman Empire in the 1st century CE, finding fertile ground due to its democratic nature, its transcendence of nationality, and its recognition of the equality of all people before God. It was persecuted by Roman authorities until the 4th century CE, when Emperor Constantine sanctioned freedom of Christian worship in 313 CE. Within the context of ancient society, Christian philosophy underwent two formative periods: the period of apologetics and the period of patristics.

The period of apologetics, distinguished by figures such as Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius, circa 150-215 CE), Origen (185-254 CE), and Tertullian (160-220 CE), derives its name from the philosophers of this era who saw their primary task as defending Christianity against Roman authorities and ancient philosophy, demonstrating the superiority of Christian doctrine over paganism and ancient philosophical thought. However, they approached this task differently. Clement of Alexandria, the head of the Christian school in Alexandria, and Origen, who succeeded him, believed that theology and philosophy do not contradict one another; there can be no knowledge without faith and no faith without knowledge. They viewed ancient philosophy as a precursor to Christianity and employed it to substantiate Christian dogmas. Through them, ancient philosophy was extensively integrated into Christian theology. They sought, through ancient philosophy, to unveil the sacred meanings of biblical narratives, which they regarded as one of philosophy's most crucial tasks.

In contrast, Tertullian approached this problem differently. He argued that the Bible contains absolute truth in its complete form, necessitating neither proof nor interpretation. Its propositions should be taken literally. “The Son of God was crucified; we are not ashamed of this, for it is shameful; the Son of God died—this we fully believe, for it is absurd. And buried, He rose again; this is true because it is impossible,” he wrote. He is attributed with the principle regarding the attitude toward religious dogmas: “Credo, quia absurdum” (I believe because it is absurd). Thus, Tertullian strongly opposed ancient philosophy, asserting that Christianity has nothing to gain from it: “After Christ, we require no curiosity; after the Gospel, we need no inquiry.” “Philosophers are the patriarchs of heretics,” he proclaimed.

The most prominent figure of the patristic period (the Church Fathers who laid the foundations of the Christian worldview) in the West was Aurelius Augustine (354-430 CE), whose authority in the Christian world remains high to this day. Augustine was born in Tagaste, in the African province of Numidia, to a family of a diminished Roman patrician and a Christian mother. He received an excellent education and displayed an early interest in philosophy during his studies. His views underwent a complex evolution, reflecting the ideological struggles of his time and his moral inquiries. He became involved with Manichaeism—one of the popular religious movements of his time—was captivated by skepticism, and was profoundly influenced by Plato and one of his most distinguished followers, Plotinus. In 387 CE, he embraced Christianity and became a fervent defender and ideologist of the faith. His principal works include: “Against the Academics,” “On Free Will,” “Confessions,” and “The City of God.”

Augustine did not share Tertullian’s perspective on reason; although he regarded ancient philosophy, with which he was well-acquainted, as an imperfect path to truth—a colorful amalgamation of conflicting ideas—the genuine way to achieve truth is through the path of Christian faith. “I believe in order to understand” encapsulates Augustine's fundamental thesis. In Augustine, we already find the foundational new positions of Christian philosophy, which underlie the medieval worldview, including the notion of a singular God as a Personality and Creator; the idea of creationism—God creating the world ex nihilo; the concept of humanity as the center of the universe, made in the image and likeness of God; the idea of the linearity of history; and the notion of revelation as the possibility of access to the highest truth, which is God.

Medieval philosophy is often referred to as scholasticism (from the Greek schole). In its original sense, scholasticism signifies school doctrine, philosophy studied in schools. Over time, the term acquired a pejorative connotation, referring to empty erudition divorced from reality. Within scholasticism itself, three periods are distinguished: early scholasticism (from the 5th to the 13th centuries), influenced by the ideas of Augustine and Neoplatonism, with notable representatives such as Boethius (480-524 CE), John Scotus Erigena (810-877 CE), and Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109 CE); mature scholasticism, primarily associated with the name of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE) and the influence of Aristotle; and late scholasticism (early 14th century to the flourishing of the Renaissance), during which the ideas of the Englishman William of Ockham gained widespread popularity. Yet, despite the distinct characteristics of the stages of medieval philosophy, its approach to fundamental philosophical problems remains largely unified, albeit with certain nuances.