Philosophy of The Middle Ages and The Renaissance

The Problem of Universals

One of the central issues of medieval philosophy is the problem of universals. The discussion regarding the nature of universals spanned several centuries, revolving around the essence of whether general concepts (universals) possess objectively real content or not.

This debate finds its roots in the ancient conflict between Platonism and Aristotelianism. During the medieval period, proponents of Platonism were termed realists, while advocates of Aristotelianism were referred to as nominalists. Realists argued that only universals hold true reality. They exist independently of whether specific things, which embody them, exist or whether humanity is aware of them. Universals predate humanity and the world in the form of ideas, images of God, by which He creates the world. This is the conclusion of extreme realism, notably articulated by Anselm of Canterbury.

In contrast, extreme nominalism, as represented by John Roscelin, asserted that true reality resides solely in the singular, individual objects. The general does not exist even in the human mind; it is merely the sounds of human speech, merely a name assigned by humanity to things.

However, these extremes were unsatisfactory to the Church, as the discussion bore not only logical implications but also worldview and theological significance, touching on issues such as the unity and trinity of God, the creation of the world, and the nature of free will.

These extremes were reconciled through moderate realism, exemplified by Thomas Aquinas, and moderate nominalism, represented by Peter Abelard. Aquinas posited that the general exists in three forms: prior to things, in things, and after things.

Prior to things, it exists as ideal archetypes of things in the mind of God; in things, it exists objectively, being immanent to them; and finally, the general exists after things in the form of concepts in human understanding. Abelard, for his part, regarded the general not merely as sound or word, but as the content of expression. The general is a term that refers to an entire class of objects.

Although the dispute regarding the nature of universals in medieval philosophy had a religious foundation, it extends beyond a purely religious issue and bears general philosophical significance. It is inextricably linked to the philosophical problem of the relationship between the general and the particular, a debate that continues to this day. Furthermore, in the position of nominalism, whose influence grew during the late scholastic period, a new methodological epistemological stance emerged, emphasizing knowledge through the study of individual objects and real phenomena.