Philosophy of The Middle Ages and The Renaissance

The Problem of Man and Society

The issue of humanity, much like in ancient philosophy since the days of Socrates, occupies a central place in medieval thought. However, the approach to humanity in ancient times markedly differs from that of the Middle Ages. Ancient philosophy, adhering to the principle of cosmocentrism, views man as a part of the Cosmos, possessing all its characteristics and embodying a microcosm. In this context, both the intellect and the body are valued; the Greeks gifted us not only philosophy but also the Olympic Games, science, and sculpture that celebrate the beauty of the human form, positioning humanity as a unique, albeit integral, part of nature.

In medieval philosophy, humanity is conceived as the image and likeness of God. Though not devoid of natural traits, including corporeality, humanity stands above nature as its master, a notion birthed from Christianity. It is believed that humans have come from another world, to which they must return after death. Consequently, while corporeality is an inherent quality, it is far from being the essence of existence. The soul is regarded as the foundation of humanity, the basis of individuality. "My body sustains my soul, and You sustain my soul," Augustine proclaims. Thus, the medieval perspective on human corporeality views it as the source of sin and desire. The ideal human figure in the Middle Ages is that of a monk or hermit who has subdued his passions and devoted himself entirely to the service of God. Unlike Augustine, however, Thomas Aquinas does not regard bodily needs as purely sinful since the body, too, is created by God. Therefore, even pagans can lead righteous, moral lives. Yet, salvation requires Christianity, as revelation and faith are essential for redemption.

Ancient and medieval philosophies significantly diverge in their understanding of the roles of reason and will in human life. For the ancients, the paramount aspect of humanity is reason, which underpins morality; only through knowledge can one attain a happy life. This focus is unsurprising, as humanity is seen as part of the Cosmos, subject to its laws, making it imperative to grasp these laws and adhere to them in life. Here, will plays a minimal role, if any at all, as seen in Stoic thought. Thus, the internal world of humans captures little interest; what matters is action in accordance with the laws of fate.

In medieval philosophy, while humanity remains a rational being, reason is not the definitive guide to a righteous life. The Christian God transcends necessity and law, acting in accordance with His free will. Consequently, humanity cannot fully comprehend Him through reason; faith becomes paramount. Augustine asserts that reason often distracts us from the Truth, leading our attention to "foolish curiosity." Truth, he suggests, should be sought by delving deep into one’s own soul. Therefore, will becomes crucial, guiding humanity along the path of righteousness and overcoming sinful inclinations. The direction of one’s thoughts determines whether a life is righteous or sinful, primarily hinging on the exercise of free will.

The concept of human free will in religious medieval philosophy also plays a vital role in "justifying God," forming a theodicy. The existence of evil and injustice in the world appears contradictory to belief in a just and benevolent God. By endowing humanity with free will, medieval religious philosophy assigns to it the blame for the existence of evil.

However, this shift in emphasis from reason to will presents an entirely different ideal of humanity compared to the ancient model. The archetype is no longer Hercules, boldly performing the deeds dictated by fate, nor an impassive thinker absorbed in the nature of the Cosmos, but a person engaged in profound inner spiritual life, engaged in self-reflection aimed at directing not only actions but also thoughts toward the search for Truth, that is, God. Thus, the focus shifts from action to contemplation, from the physical to the psychological—a perspective largely absent in antiquity, which lays the groundwork for understanding humanity as an individual self in the modern era.

The struggle between good and evil within humanity is also reflected in human history and society. According to Augustine's doctrine, the embodiment of this struggle is the City of God and the City of Earth. The divine "kingdom" is represented by the Church, while the earthly "kingdom" signifies the state. This perspective mirrors the political realities of the Middle Ages, where the primary political entities were the Church and the state, the Pope and the king, engaged in political strife throughout the medieval period.

Augustine posits that the state is not a mere accident; it arises after humanity's fall and is necessary to suppress evil until Judgment Day. Earthly authority is also derived from God, just as is the authority of the Church and the Pope. However, ecclesiastical authority is superior, as it is spiritual in nature, and politics should be grounded in the moral values established and propagated by religion.

Thomas Aquinas approaches this question somewhat differently. Following Aristotle, he views the state and society as essential conditions for human self-realization. Thus, human existence outside the state is unthinkable, and non-Christians can live virtuously within a good state. However, for Aristotle, the state represents the pinnacle of human self-realization. For Aquinas, the state is merely a transitional phase in human existence, with the ultimate goal being eternal salvation. Only Christians can aspire to eternal salvation, as the path to it is revealed to them through the Bible. Consequently, Aquinas places the Church and the Pope above the sovereign (the Pope can excommunicate a tyrant), yet he still regards political power as relatively independent from ecclesiastical authority, albeit without drawing a rigid boundary between the two, as spiritual and temporal matters are intertwined.