Society

The Concept of Society

Society represents an extraordinarily complex, contradictory, multifaceted, and historically mutable phenomenon. The term "society" in philosophy does not possess a singular definition:

1. Society is the most general system of connections and relationships among individuals, arising from their lived experiences (the "human society");
2. Society denotes a historically defined type of social system (such as primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, or communist society);
3. Society may refer to a specific form of social organization that has emerged through the historical development of a given country.

It is no coincidence that the term "society" is utilized in various meanings within philosophical, economic, and historical literature, reflecting the common practice of distinguishing phenomena through broad and narrow interpretations of the concepts they embody.

In a broad sense, society can be understood as the environment of civilized human existence or personified nature, artificially created through the interaction of developed consciousness, purposeful human activity, and the circumstances encountered or deliberately constructed by individuals. In other words, society is the sum of all forms of interaction and association among individuals, where their interdependence is expressed.

However, such a definition may prove inadequate for specific scientific research endeavors. Moreover, this broad understanding of society "overlooks" three interrelated prerequisites that impede social cognition:

1. Society consists of concrete individuals and the relationships between them;
2. Societies are regional, territorially bounded entities;
3. Societies, whether as groups of people or as territories, can be observed from an external standpoint.

In a narrower sense, society can refer to a structurally or genetically defined type of communication that arises as a historically specific quantity or as a relatively autonomous element of a stable integrity.

Thus, the use of the term "society" in a narrower interpretation enables us to tether it to concrete conditions and to consider it as a historically specific means or form of self-organization and interaction among people and their communities concerning the balanced realization of individual needs, common interests, and societal ideals. In this aspect, the concept of "society" may signify: a) A concrete, independent unit of historical development (e.g., the society of ancient Rome, medieval Spain, contemporary Ukraine, etc.); b) A particular set of social organisms; c) Humanity as a whole; d) A society of a certain type in general (e.g., feudal, industrial, transitional, etc.).

Despite its close connection to nature, society distinguishes itself from any natural objects and belongs to a non-natural or super-natural type of reality, thus creating what is termed social reality. The specificity of this reality lies in its encompassing all conditions of social life, which present themselves to members of society as supra-individual, objectively given circumstances of their existence. Social reality consists of numerous phenomena referred to as social facts—a special type of phenomena that exist solely within society, in the communal life of individuals. Émile Durkheim proposes to regard social facts as things. Unlike natural objects, social entities possess dual determinacy. On one hand, they, like natural phenomena, have material determinacy, meaning they can be viewed as a reality that exists independently of humans, characterized by objectively inherent properties. On the other hand, all phenomena of social reality also possess spiritual determinacy and convey a certain "meaning" or "significance," as they are "objectified" by human beings.

Social reality exhibits a complex structure. The primary elements of this structure include: — The individuals themselves, their associations, relationships, and actions—the main components of social reality and its creative force; — Language—the code through which individuals transmit information to one another; — The world of material artifacts (from Latin arte meaning "artificial" and factus meaning "created")—the collection of artificially created objects as opposed to those arising naturally, constituting the artificially crafted realm of existence, the "second nature," in which human society resides; — Natural phenomena that are drawn into the sphere of social activity; — Collective representations—shared views, beliefs, and attitudes that are widespread in society and more or less accepted by its members. A subtype of collective representations are social stereotypes—simplified, schematic images of certain social phenomena and objects that have gained widespread acceptance in public opinion.

The French philosopher and sociologist Émile Durkheim characterizes society as "the most powerful focal point of physical and moral forces that exists in the world." Nowhere in nature is there such a wealth of diverse materials concentrated to such a degree. It is not surprising, therefore, that from society emerges a distinctive life that, reacting to the elements that compose it, transforms them and elevates them to the highest form of existence.

The American sociologist Pitirim Sorokin defines society not merely as a sum of several units (individuals, persons, etc.), but suggests that these units are not isolated from one another; rather, they exist in a process of interaction, influencing each other in various ways, coming into contact, and possessing various connections among them.

His compatriot Neil Smelser, in his work "Sociology," delineates certain conditions that must be met for a social aggregation to be termed a society. These conditions include: a) a specific territory; b) replenishment of society primarily through childbirth; c) a developed culture; and d) political independence.

Social philosophy, as a branch of philosophical knowledge, determines the specifics and trends of human society's development, the mechanisms of its formation and the laws of its existence, the place of humans within it, the social structure of society, its levels and forms of organization, the direction and meaning of human history, and the spiritual foundations of society.

Society is an exceedingly complex system that forms as people develop the capacity to distinguish themselves from nature. Philosophy identifies three primary groups of factors that condition the development of human society: — Labor (a specifically human purposeful activity); — Communication (the collective nature of activity and life); — Consciousness (the cognition, intellect, and spiritual content of human activity).

The internal complexity and variability of the phenomenon of "society" have led to numerous interpretations of its essence at various levels of understanding, corresponding to particular stages in the development of humanity's social cognition.

The etymology of "society" is linked to the Latin socio, which means to connect, unite, or undertake collaborative work. Thus, the primary meaning of the term "society" is community, alliance, or cooperation. According to Plato, society is the union of individuals to meet their needs and serves as a means for realizing the interdependence of individuals. Aristotle referred to humans as "political animals" in the sense that only they can voluntarily and consciously unite into society. However, not every grouping of individuals constitutes a society, but every society is, in some manner, a self-organizing, self-governing community. Hence, society should be understood as the product of purposeful and rationally organized collective activity of large groups of individuals united not by mere formality but by collective interests and agreement. Nonetheless, since both the political essence of humans and collective interests, as well as the social contract, are most actively realized at the level of state organization, ancient thinkers (Confucius, Plato, and others) equated society with the state. This tendency persisted throughout the Middle Ages and only in the works of Niccolò Machiavelli does the state emerge as one of the components of society, which itself is viewed as a broader and more fundamental entity.

Indeed, contemporary philosophical literature examines society in the context of distinguishing the specifics of human life from the animal world. In this light, society is a unique mode of existence for unique beings—humans—whose primary factors are consciousness, activity, and communication. The genetic-functional connection among these factors encourages the creation of a world of culture that is distinct from the natural, material-spiritual realm. The state, then, is a product of the historical development of society, a form of organizing life within a specific society based on law and order.

The concept of "society" must also be distinguished from such notions as "people" and "nation." A people is a form of community united by common ancestry, culture, and language. A nation is a form of organizing life for one or several peoples, associated with statehood, and encompasses economic, political, and spiritual relationships among individuals. Nevertheless, all these concepts intersect and complement one another.

Thus, in a generalized form, society is the aggregate of individuals united by specific interests, needs, mutual sympathies, or types of activity. Society is a condensation of the connections and relationships that develop among people during practical economic activities and social life.

It is essential to differentiate between philosophical, historical, and general sociological approaches to the study of society. History primarily examines society in a diachronic perspective, whereas sociology focuses on a synchronic perspective, concentrating on what is defined by the term social structure. This refers to the organization and relationships of individual elements within the social system as a cohesive whole. Philosophy integrates both diachronic and synchronic perspectives in its examination of society. History and sociology, like other social sciences, strive to understand society as an object distinct from the subject, a fragment of objective reality. By emphasizing concepts such as purpose, driving forces, essence, and direction of the historical process, philosophy elucidates the world of society through the lens of its connection and interrelations with individuals—as the foundation and mode of their existence, and simultaneously, their own continuation. Therefore, the philosophical understanding of society is characterized not by an isolated focus on society itself or the individual, but by an exploration of their unity, the uniqueness of all forms, levels, and aspects of the mutual influence and transformation of the individual and the social, the resolution of societal and personal existential dilemmas, the formulation of existential guidelines, and the identification of conditions for free self-identification and self-realization of individuals, under which society is preserved and refined.

The philosophical essence of the concept of society lies in the determination of the specific types of connections that unite individuals into a cohesive whole. The primary types of such connections are deemed to be spiritual (Augustine, Thomas Aquinas), conventional (philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries), and material, rooted in the interactions among people (Marx).

The choice of a particular explanatory method regarding the genesis and functioning of society hinges upon the foundational worldview of the observer. In this regard, the philosophy of society serves as the second facet of the philosophy of man. Humanity constitutes the substrate of any form of sociality, ranging from the simplest communal gatherings to contemporary civilizational and political supersystems. Thus, a philosophical perspective on society is inextricably linked to the philosophical dilemmas concerning human existence.

Consequently, to comprehend the phenomenon of society, it is imperative to recognize the contradictions inherent in humanity as a social "atom," and subsequently to explore the nature of the regularities that bind people into a unified whole, into a social "organism." Several fundamental approaches are distinguished concerning the elucidation of these connections and regularities.

One of these is the "idealist" approach. Here, the essence of the bonds uniting people into a single entity is examined through a complex of various ideas, beliefs, and myths. History has witnessed numerous instances of theocracies where unity is upheld by a singular faith, which simultaneously becomes the state religion. Most totalitarian regimes have existed on the foundation of a singular state ideology, which forms the backbone of societal order. Attempts to uncover the hidden spring of monumental historical events in the mindsets of great individuals have always drawn interest. For centuries, saints and prophets, utopians and scholars have sought to guide humanity toward the "true path." However, this journey has perpetually encountered obstacles, both in the guise of objective circumstances and through the very nature of humankind. A significant portion of this approach is dedicated to attempts to emphasize the leading role of the national spirit (national character), the national idea, and similar concepts in societal and historical development. It is quite common to seek explanations for history through the actions of objectively existing spiritual entities—World Reason, Absolute Idea, Absolute Will, or God. Yet, this last tendency often relegates the resolution of all life’s issues either to an afterlife or to a distant "bright future," for which present sacrifices are deemed necessary.

Another approach is the "materialist" perspective. This relates to the philosophical analysis of interpersonal connections and relationships that arise under specific natural conditions and within the context of certain beliefs, yet hold a determinative character.

One variant of this approach is the naturalistic perspective. Its essence lies in the consideration of society as an extension of the patterns found in nature, the animal kingdom, and ultimately—the Cosmos. From this standpoint, the type of social order and the course of history are shaped by the rhythms of solar activity and cosmic emissions (A. Chizhevsky, L. Gumilyov), the peculiarities of geographical and natural-climatic environments (Montesquieu, L. Mechnikov), and the specific characteristics of humanity as a natural being, including genetic, racial, and sexual traits (supporters of sociobiology—E. Wilson, R. Dawkins, et al.). Within this framework, it is posited that society is capable of transforming its mode of existence, "venturing" into the Cosmos to initiate a new phase of its evolution (K. Tsiolkovsky and other "cosmists").

An atomistic perspective on society may also be conceived, viewing it as a collection of individuals united by a certain contract. Although in a "natural" state one human is a wolf to another (Hobbes), people can ensure their existence through civil laws, ideas of freedom and equality. In this case, society manifests as a conglomerate of individuals linked by conditional ties.

In the organic model, society is perceived as a holistic entity, a particular system structured in such a way that the whole is not reducible to the sum of its parts. In this understanding, individuals realize themselves in relation to their position within society and the nature of their participation in the overarching process. The relationships among people are defined not by contracts, but by the consensus of society’s members, which takes into account the objective regularities of historical development. In this light, it becomes justifiable to assert that social actions result from human endeavors, but not necessarily from human intentions. Based on this approach, K. Marx formulated the concept of historical materialism, which posits that the mode of production is constituted objectively, that is, independently of the will and consciousness of individuals.

What unites individuals into a "social organism" is not a common idea or God, but rather the productive forces and the relations of production, the transformations of which form the foundation of socio-economic formations as stages of world history. These system-creating factors, in turn, depend on a variety of natural-climatic conditions, means of communication, language, culture, and more. However, what is most decisive is the social being of individuals, a peculiar "social matter" that manifests as the "real process" of human life. The materialist understanding of history emphasizes the objectivity of the processes occurring within society based on deterministic principles, according to which a specific form of material production "…gives rise, firstly, to a certain structure of society, and secondly, to particular relations of humans to nature. Their state structure and spiritual constitution are determined by both" (K. Marx). Society can be studied as a "natural-historical process," just as natural science examines nature and its laws. Unlike natural laws, social laws emerge later and are realized only through the conscious activity of individuals; they are more complex in their mechanisms of manifestation and possess a probabilistic nature.

Marxism, in principle, does not deny the subjective factor in history and the freedom of will, which logically flows from its dialectical-materialist method. However, in practice, a significant shortcoming of Marxism has been its hypertrophy of the objective moment in history and insufficient attention to the subjective-psychological factor.

It is also worthwhile to highlight the synergistic approach as one of the contemporary perspectives that views society as a social organism. According to this approach, society is an exceedingly complex, dissipative system (from the Latin "dissipare," meaning "to disperse")—an open system that continually interacts with its environment and sustains its existence through a perpetual exchange of matter and energy with it, evolving while exhibiting properties characteristic of such systems. Moreover, these properties manifest in a manner unique to society.

When discussing the interaction with the environment, it is crucial to note that, unlike closed stationary systems, which endure longer the less they feel external influence, society is an open dynamic system that strengthens through such interactions. A distinctive form of interaction with the environment is material production. This serves as the foundation for various forms of human economic activity aimed at fulfilling their material needs. Production, along with the distribution and consumption of its products, constitutes the economic sphere of social life. Throughout the historical evolution of society, the intensity of its exchange of matter and energy with the environment ("social metabolism") tends to increase.

The self-organization of human society historically unfolds as the development of diverse forms of governance over social processes. The peculiarities of societal self-organization are intertwined with the concept of power. Possession of authoritative powers serves as the basis for executing managerial functions, along with all its implications. The struggle for power at various levels of the social structure constitutes the essence of politics in the broadest sense—of the political sphere of social life. At the apex of this structural hierarchy stands state power.

In contemporary social philosophy, the understanding of the concept of "society" is linked to the information revolution and a new worldview. "The information-computer revolution is realized as a process of informatization of all spheres of social life and human activity. Each socio-technical revolution is founded on its distinct technological systems. For the information revolution, these are information technologies. Its ultimate goal should be the establishment of a new information civilization. Moreover, everything undergoes radical transformation: material production and worldview, daily life and education, communication and art not only alter their external traits but also their internal mechanisms—the essence of their activities," writes A. I. Rakитов in his work "Philosophy of the Computer Revolution." A global planetary civilization is emerging based on, on the one hand, the unity and indivisibility of the world community, and on the other, the multiplicity, relative independence, and diversity of nations and cultures.

The primary characteristic of information processes within society lies in the fact that for conscious and rational beings, information acquires a unique "supernatural" quality—meaning. The emergence of meaning is a step that creates a new type of informational processes, which, in nature, does not exist without humanity and appears only in society. By attributing meaning to phenomena in the surrounding reality, humans transform them into signs through which information is encoded. Here, language, as a coding system, holds a particularly significant role. Information, embodied in language and other sign systems, becomes social information, whose bearer is no longer an individual, but society as a whole. The informational environment within human society is culture. Its preservation is ensured by the mechanism of social memory. The essence of the latter lies in the fact that information accumulated by previous generations does not vanish with them but is retained within culture, and each new generation amplifies it. This enables society to achieve what is impossible in the animal kingdom—a rapid increase in the volume of information available to humanity as a species.