The Problem of Man in Philosophy

The Essence of Man

Activity

The concept of activity is employed ambiguously in literature. The most general philosophical category under which the notion of activity can be subsumed is that of movement. Movement is a mode of existence for matter. Considering the complex organization of matter, to specify the form of movement characteristic of living organisms, the term "activity" is utilized. However, life is divided into plant and animal forms. To denote the more intricate type of activity that manifests as a mode of existence for animals, the term "vital activity" (or "behavior") is employed. Ultimately, what distinguishes humans from animals is a specific form of movement, activity, and behavior known as activity.

Activity is the mode of existence for humans. Yet, not all actions performed by humans constitute truly human activity. It becomes activity when it is imbued with a conscious purpose. Humans evaluate their activity by the degree of perfection with which it is executed, comparing their actions and their outcomes with what "ought to be." Animals, by contrast, do not strive for any form of "perfection"; they merely execute what is dictated by the natural mechanisms of their behavior.

The vital activity of animals unfolds in accordance with the laws of nature. Human activity, in addition, adheres to certain rules and norms that individuals establish for themselves. Natural laws cannot be violated or annulled at the whim of another. Conversely, rules and norms can be accepted or rejected by humans; they may choose to follow them or not. While animals adapt to their environment, humans transform it through activity, creating a "second nature"—an artificial environment, a world of culture. At the same time, through their activities, humans alter their external nature and, consequently, their own nature, developing and perfecting themselves. The internal, spiritual world of humanity is birthed and nurtured through human activity.

The essential components of human activity are as follows:

1. Subject of Activity: This can be an individual, a group of individuals, or society as a whole. In the first instance, we speak of individual activity; in the latter two, we refer to collective activity. Any individual activity is always embedded within the complex system of collective activity and, ultimately, the entirety of humanity.
2. Object of Activity: This may be either material or ideal. Humans can make themselves the object of their activity.
3. Purpose of Activity: This is the ideal model of what ought to be (the "desired future"). While the behavior of animals is also characterized by a direction toward certain goals, its appropriateness is dictated by biological laws that define a specific goal in each concrete situation. In contrast, humans are capable of freely setting and choosing the goals of their activity. They can aim for objectives that are unattainable in particular situations. In their activities, humans continually create new goals that transcend biological needs. The capacity for free goal-setting is a distinctive feature of human activity.
4. Acts of Activity: These are the individual actions that compose it. Any activity can be divided into many constituent acts. This division holds particular significance for the learning process.
5. Method of Activity: Being free to choose the means of their activities, humans strive to find those methods that will best facilitate the achievement of their set goals.
6. Means of Activity: These are the material or ideal items utilized by the subject during the process of activity.
7. Result (Product) of Activity: This does not always coincide with the initial goal. Furthermore, our activities yield results of a dual nature: firstly, direct results that correspond to the consciously defined goal; secondly, indirect results that we do not anticipate or recognize.

Human activity is extraordinarily diverse, encompassing numerous forms and types. Most often, the primary forms of activity are considered to be labor, learning, and play.

Play: Play manifests in various forms, encompassing both children's games and more complex activities such as military training, political campaigns, religious rites, and so forth. The main characteristics of play, according to J. Huizinga, include:

1. Any play is a voluntary activity. Play under compulsion is not play. Play is not a necessity. If it becomes a means of existence, transforming into an obligation, it is perceived as an accident that does not define its essence.
2. By nature, play is not utilitarian; it is not a form of productive, practically useful activity. Play is a celebration, not a mundane task.
3. Play entails a departure from the real into the realm of the potential.
4. Play occurs within a defined space. At the same time, it is clearly demarcated by temporal boundaries—its beginning and end.
5. Each play has its own laws—rules of play. Play possesses an internal order, which gives rise to the aesthetics of play.
6. A crucial element of play is tension, existing as a form of competition—a struggle against other players.
7. Any developed game fosters the unity of players, creating a particular camaraderie.

Learning: Educational activity is aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills, and competencies for future labor. Learning plays a significant role throughout a person's life. Educational activity is a necessary condition for human socialization, facilitating entry into the system of social relations and transforming individuals into fully-fledged members of society. Learning is a means of mastering accumulated social experience and a prerequisite for its further dissemination. A society that fails to provide the younger generation with opportunities for learning is doomed to degradation. For learning to be effective, it must be organized as a process. Over history, the forms of the educational process have evolved.

Historically, the first form of learning is everyday practical instruction, which does not entail a special organization of educational activities. Learning occurs spontaneously, through the involvement of the younger generation in the labor activities of adults. A defining feature of this form of learning is the inseparable unity of the learning process with life, characterized by informal, personal interaction between student and teacher.

The second form of the educational process is demonstrative learning, during which the student imitates the actions of the teacher. At this stage, learning becomes distinct from other forms of human activity, emerging as a specific type of its own. The teacher must possess certain pedagogical skills and be adept in methodological techniques, while the student is expected to replicate the teacher's actions precisely.

This approach emerges during the Modern Age, rooted in classical pedagogy (such as the ideas of John Amos Comenius and others). Developmental learning is closely associated with the formulation of specific didactic techniques that stimulate student engagement. The teacher’s role extends beyond mere demonstration and explanation; the student must not only repeat and memorize but also comprehend the material studied and independently engage in exercises that foster mastery. Here, independent work assumes particular significance. Despite certain transformations, the developmental system remains the most prevalent form of education today. Yet, both developmental and demonstrative learning exhibit shortcomings, primarily characterized by the teacher assuming the role of the principal actor in the educational process, largely retaining the initiative. Consequently, the student is relegated to the position of mere executor.

The horizons of a new psychological and pedagogical educational system gradually take shape in the 20th century. It is built upon the concept of creative learning. This form of education entails an individualized approach where the teacher collaborates closely with the student. The chief factor in creative learning is the initiative of the students. In this system, the student transforms from an object of pedagogical influence into an equal participant in dialogue. They bear responsibility for their work to the same extent that the teacher is accountable for theirs. In creative learning, the educational process evolves into a joint endeavor between teacher and student, organized as a dynamic human interaction, where both parties are genuinely interested in one another and the outcomes of their collaborative efforts.

The primary characteristic that distinguishes labor from play and learning is its production of goods essential for satisfying human needs. In contrast to play and learning, labor entails a separation of the product from the process of activity. This means that during labor, some individuals may engage in the work while others benefit from its products. Herein lies the potential for human exploitation by other humans, which contributes to the division of society into the rich and the poor.

Human attitudes toward labor have always been paradoxical. In any society, on one hand, there exists “noble” labor performed by members of elite structures, while on the other hand, there is the mundane “dirty” work executed merely for survival.

Nevertheless, regardless of one’s perspective on labor, it is an indispensable condition for the existence of society. Labor has played a decisive role in the emergence of humanity. While the content and forms of labor undergo historical transformations, it invariably remains the principal mode of human activity.

As human society evolves, a social division of labor occurs. Correspondingly, groups of workers specializing in various types of labor emerge within society.

In primitive times, the primary forms of such activity included hunting, animal husbandry, agriculture, and domestic chores. In later stages of societal development, labor division becomes more complex: distinct categories such as crafts, construction, and trade emerge.

With the passage of time, mental labor becomes distinct from physical labor, intertwining with the management of people, the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge, education, the development of art, religion, and science.

During the Medieval period, the guild organization of artisanal labor arises. The advent of manufactories is accompanied by the disaggregation of intricate production processes into elementary operations performed by different workers.

The shift to industrial production incites a true revolution in the societal organization of labor. Large-scale industry, with its intricate machinery, gives rise to a new type of worker—professionally trained wage laborers. Over time, the degree of technological sophistication in workplaces continues to escalate. The importance of enterprise management, labor organization, technology, and working conditions increases, necessitating precise scientific and engineering calculations. In the 19th century, the first specialized works dedicated to the "scientific organization of labor" emerge. One of their authors, the American engineer and researcher F. Taylor, develops and implements a system of methods for optimizing labor in enterprises.

As capitalist production develops, a profound internal contradiction regarding the position of the worker reveals itself. A significant defining feature of this contradiction, noted by both Marxists and later existentialists, is the total alienation of the worker from both the process and the outcomes of their labor. Prolonged attempts to overcome the contradictions of capitalist production drive society to seek forms of humane relations between workers and employers, as well as various means of incentivizing workers' interest in enterprise activities. However, alienation remains an insurmountable challenge to this day.

From the mid-20th century onward, the process of production automation unfolds. While mechanization leads to the alleviation and removal of manual, physical labor, automation liberates the worker from both physical tasks and monotonous cognitive labor involving machine operation. Simultaneously, the enhancement of labor culture and its humanization emerges as a primary objective. Contemporary labor culture demands from workers a sense of internal responsibility for their work and self-regulation.

The explosive advancement of information technology in the latter half of the 20th century brings about significant changes in the organization of cognitive labor, primarily through computerization. Computers serve as reliable assistants, providing individuals with extraordinary capabilities for acquiring, processing, storing, and transmitting vast amounts of information. The use of computers opens avenues for discovering and disseminating new forms of labor organization.

However, a computer, like any other technology, can become hazardous for humanity, leading to the dehumanization of not only labor but of life itself. Consequently, some experts urge caution regarding excessive reliance on computers, which should function as aids rather than overseers of human activity. Based on this premise, J. Moore articulates three principles that limit the role of computers in decision-making:

1. Decisions that individuals wish to make independently cannot be delegated to computers.
2. Decisions that an individual can make more competently should not be assigned to computers.
3. Decisions that cannot be rectified or overturned by the individual must not be transferred to computers.

The evolution of technology results in the standardization of production and working conditions across different countries; however, experience shows that what is effective in one country does not always succeed in another. Much depends on national cultural traditions, the specifics of industrial and economic development, and the sophistication of legal frameworks.

The historical development of activity possesses its own dynamics. Its mechanism is grounded in the fact that humans continuously create and refine the tools they use to achieve their goals. In this process, both the creation and enhancement of means of activity become intermediate objectives on the path to the ultimate goal, transforming into a distinct form of activity. Thus, human activity evolves, converting its means into ends and its ends into means. This is linked to its differentiation, the origin, and development of its various forms. New and increasingly robust and sophisticated means of achieving goals emerge upon this foundation. The advancement of human activity cannot cease, as the driving forces for its development lie inherently within itself.