Philosophy of the Modern Era

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Reformation and Counter-Reformation equally represent an uprising of less civilized peoples against the intellectual domination of Italy. In the case of the Reformation, this rebellion took on both political and theological dimensions; the authority of the pope was rejected, and the tribute he received through his papal power ceased to flow into his treasury. In contrast, the Counter-Reformation was a revolt solely against the intellectual and moral freedom of Renaissance Italy; the power of the pope was not diminished but rather augmented, while it became increasingly evident that his authority was incompatible with the careless debauchery of the Borgias and the Medici. Broadly speaking, the Reformation was German, whereas the Counter-Reformation was Spanish; the religious wars were simultaneously conflicts between Spain and its enemies, coinciding with a period when Spanish power was at its zenith.

The attitude of public opinion in the northern nations toward Renaissance Italy is encapsulated in the English proverb of the time:

The Italianized Englishman is the embodiment of the devil.

Let us recall the number of scoundrels in Shakespeare's works who were Italians. Iago is perhaps the most prominent example, but an even more illustrative case is Iachimo in Cymbeline, who leads a virtuous Briton astray during his travels in Italy and then arrives in England to execute his treacherous schemes against the unsuspecting loved ones of the Briton. The moral outrage against Italians was closely intertwined with the Reformation; yet, regrettably, the Reformation also encompassed an intellectual denial of all that Italy had contributed to civilization.

The three great figures of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation are Luther, Calvin, and Loyola. All three, in intellectual terms, represent medieval philosophy when compared to the Italians who preceded them directly, as well as to individuals like Erasmus of Rotterdam and More. The century following the onset of the Reformation was philosophically barren. Luther and Calvin returned to St. Augustine, preserving only that part of his teachings related to the soul’s relationship with God, while discarding the aspects pertinent to the church. Their theology aimed to undermine the authority of the church. They abolished purgatory, from which souls of the deceased could be freed through masses. They rejected the doctrine of indulgences, which constituted a significant portion of papal revenues. The teaching of predestination conferred complete independence from the actions of the clergy concerning the fate of the soul after death. These innovations, while assisting in the struggle against the pope, hindered the Protestant church from attaining the same power in Protestant nations as the Catholic Church held in Catholic countries. Protestant theologians were (at least initially) as intolerant as the Catholic clergy, yet they wielded less power and, consequently, had fewer opportunities to inflict harm.

Almost from the outset, disagreements arose among Protestants regarding the role of state authority in religious affairs. Luther wished to recognize the princes as heads of the church in their respective countries wherever they were Protestant. In England, Henry VIII and Elizabeth adamantly insisted on their right to be the heads of the church; similarly, Protestant rulers in Germany, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands, after its break from Spain, pursued the same path. This reinforced the already existing trend toward the increasing power of kings. However, those Protestants who took the individualistic aspects of the Reformation seriously did not wish to submit to the king to the same extent as they would to the pope. The Anabaptists in Germany were suppressed, but their teachings permeated the Netherlands and England. The conflict between Cromwell and the Long Parliament had many facets; theologically, it was partially a conflict between those who rejected and those who supported the view that the state should resolve religious issues. Gradually, the weariness resulting from the religious wars led to an increase in religious tolerance, which became one of the sources of the movement that later evolved into the liberalism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

The success of the Protestants, initially remarkably swift, was primarily hindered by counteracting factors such as the establishment of the Jesuit order by Loyola; Loyola was a soldier, and his order was structured on a military model: the order demanded absolute obedience to the general, and each Jesuit was to consider himself a participant in the war against heresy. Even during the time of the Council of Trent, the Jesuits gained significant influence. They were disciplined, capable, deeply devoted to their cause, and skilled propagandists. Their theological teachings directly opposed those of the Protestants. They rejected the parts of St. Augustine's teachings that were emphasized by the Protestants. They believed in free will and opposed the doctrine of predestination. Salvation was attained not solely through faith, but through a combination of faith and works. The Jesuits gained prestige through their missionary zeal, particularly in the Far East. They became popular as confessors because (according to Pascal) they were more lenient toward everything except heresy than other clergymen. They focused on education and thereby acquired a profound influence over the minds of the youth. The education they provided, when not hindered by theology, was the best available at the time; we see that they taught Descartes mathematics better than he could have learned it anywhere else. Politically, they formed the only unified, disciplined organization, undeterred by any dangers and difficulties; they persuaded Catholic rulers not to shy away from executions and, following closely behind the punitive Spanish army, restored the terror of the Inquisition even in Italy, where free thought had existed for almost a century.

The intellectual consequences of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation were initially largely unfavorable, but ultimately proved to be beneficial. The Thirty Years' War convinced everyone that neither Protestants nor Catholics could achieve complete victory, which led to the necessity of abandoning the medieval hope of creating a unity of faith; this, in turn, increased the freedom of individuals to think independently even about the most fundamental questions. The differences in doctrines across various countries allowed for the avoidance of persecution by living abroad. The aversion to religious wars meant that the attention of the most capable individuals was increasingly drawn to secular knowledge, particularly mathematics and the natural sciences. This is one of the reasons explaining the fact that while the sixteenth century, following the rise of Luther, yielded nothing philosophically, the seventeenth century produced the greatest names and was marked by the most significant progress since the Greeks. This progress began in the natural sciences, a topic I shall address in the next chapter.