Existentialism

Social Preconditions and Ideational Sources of Existentialism

Among the myriad of non-classical philosophical systems of the twentieth century that center on the problem of humanity, existentialism occupies a distinct role. In the mid-twentieth century, existentialism emerged as one of the influential philosophical movements profoundly impacting the spiritual culture of Western Europe. Its significance stemmed not merely from the novelty of the issues it addressed—questions that had been posed in medieval and Renaissance philosophy—but from the radicalization of these issues. Prior to existentialism, the question of human existence, examined through the lens of personal experience and self-reflection, had never been posed with such urgency. At its core, existentialism seeks to comprehend human existence and the world through the prism of individual being. Although the influence of existentialism waned considerably in the latter half of the twentieth century, its contribution to our contemporary understanding of humanity remains invaluable.

Social Preconditions and Ideational Sources of Existentialism

The philosophy of existentialism is primarily associated with the names of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) and Karl Jaspers (1883-1969), as well as the French philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Albert Camus (1913-1960), and Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973). By the mid-twentieth century, existentialist ideas had gained popularity in various countries across Europe and even in the United States; however, it is primarily through the works of German and French philosophers that the foundational ideas and principles of existentialism were developed. The formal establishment of existentialist philosophy is closely linked to the publication of Heidegger's "Being and Time" in 1927, which articulated new approaches to philosophical problems and outlined possible avenues for their resolution.

Before delving into the core ideas of existentialist philosophy, it is essential to briefly consider the social conditions and circumstances that fostered the development of this philosophy and its theoretical sources.

Undoubtedly, the emergence of existentialism is deeply rooted in the social crisis facing European society at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries, and particularly in the crisis of German society. The founders of existentialism speak directly to this. Even where they remain silent, their methodologies suggest a broader understanding of the social crisis. Heidegger affirms Nietzsche's assertion regarding the crisis of European civilization—European nihilism, the essence of which Nietzsche encapsulates in the phrase "God is dead." Heidegger concurs with Nietzsche in recognizing a period of re-evaluation of values, resulting in an instability of consciousness. Jaspers similarly articulates concerns about "dangers threatening annihilation" and a catastrophe that "has struck the West." However, the existentialist perspective on the social crisis and its potential resolutions is significantly more pessimistic than Nietzsche's. While Nietzsche saw the way out of the crisis in the Übermensch and the affirmation of a new value system, existentialism essentially evades this question, leaving prospects for overcoming the crisis bleak. This is hardly coincidental; Nietzsche died at the turn of the twentieth century, before witnessing World War I—a time when educated Europe became embroiled in a true human slaughter, blood flowing like rivers while enlightened reason remained silent. This overarching European crisis, which can justifiably be described as a global crisis given its impact on the United States, Japan, and China, was compounded by a uniquely German context—the defeat of Germany in that war, which inevitably influenced the public consciousness of German society. Humiliation and confusion, disappointment and pessimism became integral traits of the German social psyche, deeply impacting the views of Heidegger and Jaspers.

This conclusion is indirectly supported by the observation that the flourishing of French existentialism coincided with World War II and the post-war years. France's defeat in the war against Germany and subsequent capitulation did little to foster optimism within the French public consciousness; nevertheless, both Sartre and Camus did not succumb to despair but actively participated in the resistance movement against German occupiers.

In discussing the social preconditions of existentialism, one cannot overlook the depersonalization and negation of individuality. Advances in science and technology significantly enhanced human productive capacity; however, in many instances, the automation of production reduced human labor to mere physical force, stripping work of any creative essence.

Moreover, the erosion of individuality extended beyond the realm of labor and permeated the entire sphere of communication. In modern society, as Jaspers observes, ideology reigns—this false consciousness imposes clichés and stereotypes of perception and understanding upon individuals, shaping conformist thinking, mass consciousness, and culture. The influence of ideology on humanity intensifies alongside technological advancements in communication, allowing ideological clichés and mass culture to infiltrate all aspects and corners of society. People become homogenized, losing their individuality.

Thus, when addressing the social roots of existentialism, it is crucial to highlight the profound social crisis affecting the very foundation of human existence, the individual as a person, characterized by a loss of stability and support, and the neglect and abandonment of individuals within society, coupled with societal indifference towards the individual.

The theoretical sources of existentialism can be traced, first and foremost, to the philosophy of the Danish thinker Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), the philosophy of life, and the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938). In Kierkegaard's philosophy, existentialism discovers the concept of existential thinking, which stands in contrast to scientific, objective thinking. The latter is impersonal and indifferent to humanity, while existential thinking engages the individual directly, placing them within the inquiry, rendering objective analysis impossible. Human existence is thus historical, fluid, and destined for death, characterized by "fear," "doubt," and other similar attributes; its comprehension is possible only intuitively, evading rational understanding.

From the philosophy of life, existentialism draws numerous themes and approaches. All the founders of existentialism reference Nietzsche, for he places humanity in a situation where "God is dead," leaving individuals alone with themselves and declaring the impossibility of rational comprehension of humanity and life. Dilthey speaks of knowledge as an experience and interpretation. Furthermore, the very framing of the question of being in the philosophy of life diverges significantly from classical philosophy, marking a step toward the existentialist interpretation of being.

In Husserl's phenomenology, existentialism is attracted primarily by the "exclusion" of the objective world from philosophical analysis, concentrating on the structure of pure consciousness and its phenomena. Additionally, existentialism inherits from Husserl the phenomenological method, which, according to existentialists, is the only means to comprehend human existence—being-consciousness and its existential aspects.

Certain ideas and themes of existentialist philosophy are also articulated by Russian writers Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy, as well as philosophers Lev Shestov and Nikolai Berdyaev. These figures are frequently invoked by existentialist philosophers, particularly by Albert Camus.